Assessment of environmental sustainability of nickel required for mobility transition

Nickel (Ni) in batteries (e.g., nickel-metal hydride battery (NiMH), lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide (NCA) and manganese (NMC)) aim to ensure higher energy density greater storage capacity. Two typical layered nickel-rich ternary cathode materials, NCA NMC, are commercialized as advanced lithium-ion (LiBs) for electric vehicles (EVs). The technology of those has been improving by steadily increasing the content each generation. In this study, we consider two types having a composite made Li [Ni 0.80 Co 0.1 Al ]O 2 , 0.33 Mn which most common materials LiBs EVs since 2010 their functional recycling is performed. use technologies resulted continuous growth demand over recent years. was added list critical United States Geological Survey (USGS) already 2021. Unfortunately now, sustainable supply even at risk due sanctions-related disruption supplies from Russia. Therefore, enhancing circularity starts be vital many economies. Demand recycled growing, however, systematic analysis sustainability its still missing. provide comprehensive assessment global primary secondary production nickel. Using system dynamics modelling integrated with geometallurgy principles analyzing processing routes (pyrometallurgical hydrometallurgical processes), quantify key environmental concerns across life cycle required mobility transition. Energy consumption, water use, related emissions assessed all stages chain, mining recycling. Our shows possibility reducing around 4.7 mt GHG, 6.9 kt PM2.5, 34.3 t BC, 2.8 CH 4 7.5 CO, 3.3 CO 169.9 N O, 3.8 NOx, 11.8 PM10, 104.8 POC, 1.6 SO x 232.5 VOC engaging through batteries. However, identical rate consumption compared mass flows means no technical progress achieved different chain towards period 2010–2030. an improvement needed save processes. results findings study contribute better understanding necessity closed-loop policies